Frankenstein and Lord of the Flies Essay Example for Free

Frankenstein and Lord of the Flies Essay Frankenstein and Lord of the Flies were written in different centuries. Analyse the similarities and discuss the differences which you have found in these texts. You should pay particular attention to characterisation, style and theme. Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein in the 18th Century. As there was no cinema or television available books were a widely accessible form of entertainment. Particularly fantastical texts like Dracula and Vathek were popular, books like these were not meant to be thought of as a portrayal of realism, this is why Frankenstein is very unbelievable. Frankenstein is set in a time when new science posed a threat to Christian beliefs, as society started to believe that man could be created. This all seemed very possible in the early 18th Century because Benjamin Franklin had previously invented a lightning conductor and in 1802 Galvani ran a current through a frogs legs and it produced a twitch. The thought of starting life with lightning terrified people because of the dangers it appeared to pose to endanger human life. William Golding published Lord of the Flies in 1954, nine years after the end of the Second World War. So there were still conflicts going on between Russia and America, Golding used the idea of continuous war and portrayed it onto the island. The text concerns a group of public school boys getting trapped on an island after their plane crashes; they all have traditional upbringings and attitudes. Other books, which had previously been written such as Swiss Family Robinson and Coral Island, featured a similar situation but with a happier ending, these types of books were all very unrealistic and fairytale like. William Golding wrote what he thought would really happen if anyone ever faced this situation. The two tribes that develop in Lord of the Flies (Jacks and Ralphs) represent Hitler and the Nazis against the allies (America, Great Britain etc). The Italians swapped sides during the war as the Nazis became weaker; Sam and Eric reflect this as they join Jacks tribe because Ralphs is less popular. Both books have many similarities and differences between them. The main similarity is that both books are about lines of civilisation being broken revealing the darker sides of peoples characters. The boys in Lord of the Flies are immediately, physically desolate after their plane crashes. Nobody knows where they are and there are no adults. In Shelleys book, the character Frankenstein chooses to be isolated as his work is more important to him than anything around him. One similarity between the two books are the characters Piggy and the creature. These two characters are both judged by their appearance. Piggy is shorter than the fair boy and very fat. He has asthma and thick spectacles. The creature has yellow skin and straight black lips, in both cases we can immediately tell that they are physically different. Even Frankenstein, the creatures creator dreaded to behold him. They both become isolated and victimised because other people see them as being different; this creates a feeling of sympathy towards both characters throughout the books. They also both have no parents as Piggys dads dead, and [his] mum, and the creature said: No father has watched my infant days, no mother had blessed me with smiles and caresses. The creature feels sadness and rejection and believes that having parents is important, this is also implicit in the case of Piggy, but the creature has never been loved by anyone so the feeling of depression is greater. It can be argued however that, in a way the creature has been loved as Frankenstein loved him while he was creating him. When he is brought to life the love he had previously received from Frankenstein ends. The difference between these two characters is that Piggys intelligence is threatening to the other boys as he has some sensible ideas that the boys do not wish to carry out. He says: Which is better- to have rules and agree, or to hunt and kill? The boys ignore him as they have already descended into tribalism at this point. Piggys intelligence is threatening because he has a very defined idea of what is right and wrong and he is a very moral person. The creatures intelligence is harmless as he only wishes to fit in. However, as the creature becomes more knowledgeable he discovered what a wretched outcast he was. He has no idea of what is right and wrong and only wants to fit in. The level of intelligence an individual has, whether it is a lot or a little can still make them isolated from others. From the start of Lord of the Flies we can tell that Piggy wants to fit in by the way he follows Ralph. Ralph disentangled himself cautiously and stole away through the branches. In a few seconds the fat boys grunts were behind him. He is last to put his hand up to vote for Ralph: Every hand outside the choir except Piggys was raised immediately. He hesitates because although he wants to vote for Ralph he does not want to be the only one who votes for him. He wants to fit in and not be the odd one out. It is implicit that Piggy was not very popular at school as They used to call [him] Piggy. This is why he follows Ralph in the way he does; he desperately tries to try and make friends as he feels depressed and sad about his previous school life. He is not very attractive; this is a reflection of how people perceive him. There are not just similarities between Piggy and the creature. Frankenstein and Ralph are also similar because although they are in different situations, they both have something they want to achieve. Ralph desperately wants to be rescued from the island. He constantly tries to keep the fire going as The fire is the main thing, because it is a signal to people to show that they are stranded. Frankensteins aim is to take science a step further by creating new life without using nature. They are both headstrong and both have will power to achieve what they want to. Unlike Frankenstein, Ralph sees reality as he acknowledges that if they do not try to get rescued they will die on the island. without the smoke signal well die here! Ralph is far more considerate than Frankenstein. Frankenstein does not consider the consequences of his actions and as a result of this he creates a disaster. He does not see reality as he becomes so determined to be the first person to create life. While Frankenstein is preoccupied with creating life, Ralph believes that preserving life is more important. Frankenstein can also be compared to Simon from Lord of the Flies. They are both symbolic of Christ. Simon passed food down to outstretched hands and Frankenstein stated that; food that I had killed, which after taking a small part, I always presented to those who had provided me. They are both kind and considerate and the way they give to others is much like the same way that Jesus did. Although Frankenstein has been isolated and anti social for a few years he is still amiable. Simon is surrounded by a lot of biblical images all through the book. The way that Simon appreciates the island and nature seems quite strange to the other boys. He is described as cracked and batty. In the same way Frankenstein gets remarks because he enjoys the structure of the human frame. and philosophy. Both Simon and Frankenstein are intransigent as they ignore any comments tackling their views. Frankenstein believes that: A new species would bless me as its creator would owe their being to me. He wants to be worshipped and idolised for creating life like God. Simon wants to appreciate his surroundings, which God as created. Frankenstein states that; No father could claim the gratitude of his child so completely as I should deserve theirs. He becomes arrogant and his ego begins to swell. He wants to totally change the way in which humans are brought to life and he becomes insatiably infatuated with this. Simon willingly accepts the beauty of nature and he sees things differently to other people, like the beast only being a fallen pilot (this shows more clarity of thought than the other boys). Unlike Frankenstein, Simons character is very vague, he is simply known as the boy who fainted towards the beginning of the book. He is also described as a vivid little boy. No one really understands him as he has more maturity to understand things than the other boys, but he does not have the vocabulary to express his views and feelings. Frankensteins character is not constant through the book. At first he is very unorthodox, as he does not consider the views or beliefs of anyone around him. Towards the end of the book he becomes remorseful as he realises that he has created a demoniacal corpse. When Simon died the clouds opened and let down the rain like a waterfall. This is pathetic fallacy as it reflects what is happening in the story. Simon is seen as God- like, and the storm and heavy rain is like Gods anger against the savage boys sin. It is as if they killed the good on the island and it cannot be justified or tolerated. After he is killed the language used is very calming; there was a trickle of water and no noise. This is ethereal, as if Simons body is being taken by angels up to heaven. The way Simons dead body moved out towards the open sea is very heavenly. When Simon sees the Lord of the Flies for the first time, Golding says: Even if he shut his eyes, the sows head still remained like an after- imageThey assured Simon that everything was a bad business. It is as if Simon is getting a vision from God; the sows head demonstrated how the hunting has got out of control. God is warning him that what is happening on the island cannot be accepted. After this has happened it is ironic that Simon is killed for being mistaken for the beast. The message given to him was right; the hunting on the island had become a bad business. The difference between the two books is that Frankenstein is a man of science and Simon is a man of spirit. In Frankenstein it is science against religion, where as in Lord of the Flies the human need to survive is put against society. Another character from Lord of the Flies who can be compared to Frankenstein is Jack. It is clear from the start that Jack will potentially be a threat from his appearance. He has red hair which signifies a fiery temper, and red is also used for warning signs, which indicate danger. Both Jack and Frankenstein become obsessive about certain things. Frankenstein becomes obsessed with creating the creature and Jack lets hunting become his obsession. Jack begins to bring up hunting in most conversations, he said: All the same- in the forest. I mean when youre hunting. He is the first to suggest that the choir form a group called the hunters and he is always the first to lead them out into the forest to go on a hunt he insists to the other boys that meat is important. Jack becomes excited by droppings that steamed he bends down to them as though he loved them. This is clearly not natural behaviour and these are definite signs that his obsession with hunting has gone too far. Frankenstein gets so engrossed with his work that he forgets about his family. He, like Jack, becomes disturbingly infatuated with his project as he does many inhumane things: [He]collected bones from charnel- houses and disturbed, with profane fingers, the tremendous secrets of the human frame. The word profane is important because it illustrates the way he shows disrespect for religion. In Lord of the Flies the other religion could be classed as Ralphs tribe. Jack does not consider the welfare of these boys and he becomes so obsessed with hunting that he forgets both his morals and the fact that the boys need to be rescued. While Jack is hunting The madness came into his eyes again. He has the urge to kill and his obsession has got so far out of control he is losing his sanity. However, these two characters are also very different because Jack has a cruel personality; he picks on the weaker boys. Piggy is usually his victim; he singles him out for the way he looks, he says, shut up fatty and you fat slug. He smacked Piggys head and he is also very sarcastic towards him: We mustnt let anything happen to Piggy, must we? His character is also very fierce; this becomes apparent from the language used. The way he slashed, slammed and snatched shows he is destructive. He acts like this so that the other boys become afraid of him and do not challenge his views; he feels powerful and dominant. He gains respect from the other boys by behaving like this: Jack looked round for understanding and found only respect. He regains the power which he lost from not being voted chief by behaving in this way, and he also feels he has control over the other boys. The boys do not always agree with him, they just followed him obediently because they are afraid of him. Jack is also like the creature because they both show their darker sides after being isolated. Jack believes he has the qualities to be leader because he can sing C sharp. When Ralph is voted leader, Jack immediately becomes isolated, and tension occurs between them as he constantly challenges Ralph to be leader. The creature becomes isolated because he is not socially accepted, as he looks different. His treacherous side shows as his level of intelligence increases. He begins to feel rage and revenge towards Frankenstein, in the same way Jack feels for Ralph. The creature says that: I declared ever-lasting war against the species, and more than all, against him who had formed me. The language used here is very strong; he shows feelings of hate towards Frankenstein because he enrolled him into a world of misery. Jack and the creature both develop feelings of hatred towards the ones who have ostracised them. Some of the words used to describe Jack and Frankenstein are animalistic. When Jack is hunting it is like he almost becomes an animal, he sniffs the air and comes trotting back. When Frankenstein gets angry he gnashed [his] teeth and ground them together. They do mot appear human as they are stripped of human characteristics such as conscience and morality. This suggests that they have evil natures. These evil natures can also be shown by the inhumane killings that occur in both books. Lord of the Flies and Frankenstein both feature violence, death and murder. In Frankenstein the creature becomes completely demoralized like Jack and Roger, the murders they commit are brutal, but the reader is more sympathetic for the creature because he has never been loved and however desperately he tried to find a friend he was always rejected. The boys in Lord of the Flies have been loved and brought up in a religious manner, so they have no excuse to kill. The boys deconstruction of their reality mirrors the creatures construction of reality. This can be shown when Simon is brutally torn apart, where as the monster is pieced together. Simon can also be related to the creature because he has a problem, which he cannot do anything about. Simon is epileptic and the creature is ugly and 8 foot tall. These are problems, which can stop them from being like other people. In Frankenstein the style in which the book is written is totally different than that of Lord of the Flies. There are three concentric layers, one within the other. The outer layer, which is the shortest, is Robert Waltons letters to his sister describing his voyage to the North Pole. In the next layer Frankenstein tells the story of how he created the monster and how he abandoned it in disgust. In the third layer the creature describes the struggle he has trying to fit in. There are also multiple storytellers in Frankenstein. In Lord of the Flies the book has a linear narrative as it reads from beginning to end, it is narrated entirely by the author. As Frankenstein is a gothic horror book, the murders do not come as much of a surprise to the reader, where as Lord of the Flies features innocent, young school boys committing brutal murders. So the shock value in Lord of the Flies is greater and indeed more horrific than that in Frankenstein. The books are also both written in a way so that the reader looses track of time. Many phrases are used in the text to imply that a lot of time has passed, like Two years had now nearly elapsed and Six years had elapsed. This reflects the insanity that develops in the characters. In Lord of the Flies there is a system of hierarchy, as there is only one place at the top Jack and Ralph constantly fight to be the highest so that they have power over the other boys. These boys are underneath Jack and Ralph in the hierarchy so they are not as powerful they are, this is why they follow one of them. Piggy is one of the weaker boys at the bottom; this is why he is victimised. In Frankenstein there is no system of hierarchy, everyone in the text is considered as equal. In both books there is a role reversal. In Lord of the Flies Ralph goes from being leader to an outcast who is left to survive on his own. Jacks hunting tribe eventually over powers Ralphs tribe who want to be rescued. This shows the immaturity of the boys as they forget their priorities. The role reversal in Frankenstein occurs between Frankenstein and the creature. Frankenstein has power over the creature while he is creating him, but when he disowns him; he is left to do what he likes. He becomes more powerful than Frankenstein (and indeed any human being) because of his sheer stature and his increased level of intelligence. Frankenstein is aware of the fact that he does not have any morals as he killed innocent children. The creature realises this: You are my creator, but I am your master; obey! Role reversals are used in the text to show that the goodness in a person does not always win. I have already discussed thematic issues within characterisation, but the main theme in both books is about the darkness of Mans soul. The evil side of man, which is inherent in everybody, can be brought out in different situations. The two books show this in different ways. Frankenstein involves an adult world confronted with many scientific changes. Lord of the Flies shows a world entirely populated by children who struggle to survive. However, in both books the same message is delivered; the notion of society breaks down when there is nothing to uphold it. This is explored through the themes of isolation, difference, anger, ambition and obsession. While the boys on the island are unwillingly taken out of society structure and the creature is forcefully thrust into it, the result is the same- the hidden darkness of mans soul is revealed.

The History of Chinese Literature Essay Example for Free

The History of Chinese Literature Essay Writing in China dates back to the hieroglyphs that were used in the Shang Dynasty of 1700 – 1050 BC. Chinese literature is a vast subject that spans thousands of years. One of the interesting things about Chinese literature is that much of the serious literature was composed using a formal written language that is called Classical Chinese. The best literature of the Yuan Dynasty era and the four novels that are considered the greatest classics are important exceptions. However, even during the Qing Dynasty of two hundred years ago, most writers composed in a literary stream that extended back about 2,400 years. They studied very ancient writings in more or less the original written language. This large breadth of time with so many writers living in the various eras and countries makes Chinese literature complex. Chinese literary works include fiction, philosophical and religious works, poetry, and scientific writings. The dynastic eras frame the history of Chinese literature and are examined one by one. The grammar of the written Classical Language is different than the spoken languages of the past two thousand years. This written language was used by people of many different ethnic groups and countries during the Zhou, Qin and Han eras spanning 1050 BC to 220 AD. After the Han Dynasty, the written language evolved as the spoken languages changed, but most writers still based their compositions on Classical Chinese. However, this written language wasn’t the vernacular language even two thousand years ago. The empires and groups of kingdoms of all these eras were composed of people speaking many different native languages. If Europe had a literary history like China’s, it would be as if most European writers until the 20th century always tried to write in ancient Classical Greek that became a dead language more than two millennia ago. Shang Dynasty (about 1700-1050 BC) Development of Chinese Writing The first dynasty for which there is historical record and archaeological evidence is the Shang Dynasty. It was a small empire in northern central China. No documents from that country survive, but there are archaeological finds of hieroglyphic writing on bronze wares and oracle bones. The hieroglyphic writing system later evolved into ideographic and partly-phonetic Chinese characters. Zhou Dynasty (1045-255 BC) Basic Philosophical and Religious Literature The Zhou Dynasty was contemporaneous with the Shang Dynasty, and then they conquered the Shang Dynasty. Their dynasty lasted for about 800 years, but for most of the time, their original territory was broken up into dozens of competing kingdoms, and these finally coalesced into several big and warring kingdoms by the end of the Zhou era. The great literary works of philosophy and religion that became the basis for Chinese religious and social belief stem from what is called the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476) and the Warring States Period (475-221). Taoism, Confucian literature, and other prominent religious and philosophical schools all emerged during these two periods. The Chinese call this simultaneous emergence of religions and philosophies the â€Å"One Hundred Schools of Thought.† Perhaps so many philosophers could write simultaneously because they lived in small kingdoms that supported them. In Chinese history, the dominant rulers generally squelch or discourage philosophical expression that contradict their own, so when there were several small powers, different schools of thought could survive in the land at the same time. The major literary achievements of the Confucian Classics, early Taoist writings, and other important prose works originated in the late Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period of the Zhou Dynasty era. These literary works deeply shaped Chinese philosophy and religion. Confucius is said to have edited a history of the Spring and Autumn Period called the Spring and Autumn Annals (æ˜ ¥Ã§ §â€¹) that shapes Chinese thinking about its history. There were hundreds of philosophers and writers who wrote conflicting documents, and there was discussion and communication. What we know of the literature of this period was mainly preserved after the Qin Dynasty’s book burning and from a few recent archeological finds of records. Probably most of the philosophical and religious works of that time were destroyed. If there were great fictional books created, they have been lost. So the main contributions of this period to Chinese literature were the prose works of the Confucian Classics and the Taoist writings, and preserved poems and songs. Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) Literary Disaster and Legalism At the end of the Zhou Dynasty era that is called the Warring States Period, of the surviving few big states in the land, the Qin Dynasty became the most powerful. The Qin Dynasty had big armies and conquered the others. Once the Qin emperor had control, he wanted to keep it, and they squelched any opposition to his authority. In the conquered territories, there were teachers of many different doctrines and religions. A big philosophical and religious school then was called Mohism. They were particularly attacked by the Qin Dynasty, and little is known about it. An early form of Buddhism was also established in China at that time, but their temples and literature were destroyed and even less is known about them. The emperor wanted to reduce the One Hundred Schools of Thought to one that he approved. He ordered the destruction of most books all over the empire. He even killed many Confucian philosophers and teachers. He allowed books on scientific subjects like medicine or agriculture to survive. So the â€Å"Book Burning and Burial of Scholars† was a literary disaster. On the other hand, the Qin Dynasty standardized the written Classical Language. It is said that a minister of the Qin emperor named Li Si introduced a writing system that later developed into modern Chinese writing. Standardization was meant to help control the society. The standardized writing system also helped people all over the country to communicate more clearly. The Qin Emperor favored a philosophical school that was called Legalism (æ ³â€¢Ã¥ ® ¶). This philosophy of course justified the strong control of the emperor and maintained that everyone should obey him. It is thought that Li Si taught that human nature was naturally selfish and that a strong emperor government with strict laws was needed for social order. Li Si’s writings on politics and law and his propagation of this school much influenced the political thinking in the Han Dynasty and later eras. Legalism texts and the standardization of writing were the Qin Dynasty era’s literary contributions. Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) Scientific and Historical Texts A former peasant leader overthrew the Qin Empire. The Han Dynasty era lasted for 400 years. At the beginning of the era, Confucianism was revived. Confucian texts were rewritten and republished. Confucianism was mixed with the Legalism philosophy of Li Si. The resulting ideology was the official ideology of the Han Dynasty and influenced political thinking afterwards. The era’s major contributions were historical texts and scientific works. Sima Qian wrote Historical Records that is a major history concerning the overall history of China from before the Shang Dynasty until the Han Dynasty. The book’s prose was considered a model for writers in succeeding dynastic eras. Another important historical text concerned the Han Dynasty itself. Some scientific texts were also thought to be important for their times, thought it doesn’t seem that the information was widely known or well known afterwards. The Han Dynasty era was one of the two main hotspot eras for scientific and technical advance. But printing wasn’t available for wide publication of the information. During the Eastern Han Dynasty towards the end of the Han era, the influence of the philosophy of the Confucian Classics that hindered scientific progress was waning. So people were more free to pursue invention. Cai Lun (50–121) of the imperial court is said to be the first person in the world to create writing paper, and this was important for written communication at the end of the empire. Finery forges were used in steel making. Two or three mathematical texts showing advanced mathematics for the times were written. The Han Empire disintegrated into warring kingdoms similar to what happened during the Warring States Period before the Qin Dynasty. For several hundred years, dynasties and kingdoms rose and fell in various places, and the next big and long-lasting dynastic empire is called the Tang Dynasty . Tang Dynasty (618-907) Early Woodblock Printing and Poetry The Tang Dynasty had a big empire that benefited from trade with the west along the Silk Road, battled with the Tibetan Empire, and experienced the growing influence of organized Buddhist religions. This era’s main contribution to Chinese literature was in the poetry of Dufu, Li Bai and many other poets. Dufu and Li Bai are often thought of as China’s greatest poets. Li Bai (701–762) was one of the greatest romantic poets of ancient China. He wrote at least a thousand poems on a variety of subjects from political matters to natural scenery. Du Fu (712-770 AD) also wrote more than a thousand poems. He is thought of as one of the greatest realist poets of China. His poems reflect the hard realities of war, dying people living next to rich rulers, and primitive rural life. He was an official in the Tang capital of Chang An, and he was captured when the capital was attacked. He took refuge in Chengdu that is a city in Sichuan Province. It is thought that he lived in a simple hut where he wrote many of his best realist poems. Perhaps more than 1,400 of his poems survive, and his poetry is still read and appreciated by modern Chinese people. Song Dynasty (960-1279) Early Woodblock Printing, Travel Literature, Poetry, Scientific Texts and the Neo-Confucian Classics The next dynasty is called the Song Dynasty. It was weaker than the Tang Dynasty, but the imperial government officials made remarkable scientific and technical advances. Military technology greatly advanced. They traded little with the west due to the presence of warring Muslim states on the old trade routes. There wasn’t territorial expansion, but the empire was continuously attacked by nomadic tribes and countries around them. Their northern territory was invaded, and they were forced to move their capital to southern China. So the era is divided into two eras called the Northern Song (960-1127) and Southern Song (1127-1279) eras. One of the era’s technological accomplishments was the invention of movable type about the turn of 2nd millennia during the Northern Song period. This helped to spread knowledge since printed material could be published more quickly and chea ply. Travel literature in which authors wrote about their trips and about various destinations became popular perhaps because the texts could be cheaply bought. The Confucian Classics were codified and used as test material for the entrance examination into the elite bureaucracy, advanced scientific texts and atlases were published, and important poems were written. The Confucian Classics were important in China’s history because from the Song Dynasty onwards, they were the texts people needed to know in order to pass an examination for the bureaucracy of China. These Confucian Classics were the Five Classics that were thought to have been penned by Confucius and the Four Books that were thought to contain Confucius-related material but were compiled during the Southern Song era. The Four Books and Five Classics (å››æ› ¸Ã¤ ºâ€Ã§ ¶â€œ) were basically memorized by those who did the best on the exams. In this way, Confucianism, as codified during the Song era, became the dominant political philosophy of the several empires until modern times. Since the bureaucrats all studied the same works on social behavior and philosophy, this promoted unity and the normalization of behavior throughout each empire and during dynastic changes. The scholar-bureaucrats had a common base of understanding, and they passed on these ideas to the people under them. Those who passed the difficult exams were highly respected even if they didn’t receive a ruling post. High education in this system was thought to produce nobility. The Five Classics and Four Books were written in the written Classical Language. The Five Classics include: The Book of Changes, The Classic of Poetry, The Record of Rites that was a recreation of the original Classic of Rites of Confucius that was lost in the Qin book purge, The Classic of History, and The Spring and Autumn Annals that was mainly a historical record of Co nfucius native state of Lu. The Four Books include: The Analects of Confucius that is a book of pithy sayings attributed to Confucius and recorded by his disciples; Mencius that is a collection of political dialogues attributed to Mencius; The Doctrine of the Mean; and The Great Learning that is a book about education, self-cultivation and the Dao. For foreigners who want a taste of this Confucian philosophy, reading the Analects of Confucius is a good introduction since the statements are usually simple and like common sense. Another period of scientific progress and technical invention was the Song era. Song technicians seemed to have made a lot of advancements in mechanical engineering. They made advanced contraptions out of gears, pulleys and wheels. These were used to make big clocks, a mechanical odometer on animal drawn carts that marked land distance by making noise after traveling a certain distance, and other advanced instruments. The Song technicians also invented many uses gunpowder including rockets, explosives and big guns. The imperial court officials did remarkable scientific research in many areas of mechanics and science. Shen Kuo (1031–1095) and Su Song (1020–1101) both wrote scientific treatises about their research and about different fields. Shen is said to have discovered the concepts of true north and magnetic declination towards the North Pole. He also described the magnetic needle compass. If Chinese sailors knew about this work, they could have sailed long distances more accurately. This knowledge would predate European discovery. He did advanced astronomical research for his time. Su Song wrote a treatise called the Bencao Tujing with information on medicine, botany and zoology. He also was the author of a large celestial atlas of five different star maps, and he also made land atlases. Su Song was famous for his hydraulic-powered astronomical clock tower. Sus clock tower is said to have had an endless power-transmitting chain drive that he described in a text on clock design and astronomy that was published in 1092. If this is so, it may be the first time such a device was used in the world. When the Southern Song Empire was conquered by the Mongols, these inventions and the astronomical knowledge may have been forgotten. Another contribution to the literature of China was the poetry of the Song era. A Southern Song poet named Lu is thought to have written almost 10,000 poems. Su Tungpo is regarded as a great poet of the Northern Song era. Here is a stanza he wrote: â€Å"The moon rounds the red mansion Stoops to silk-pad doors Shines upon the sleepless Bearing no grudge Why does the moon tend to be full when people are apart?† Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) Drama and Great Fictional Novels The Mongols were nomadic people who herded cattle north of the Tang Empire and wandered over a large area fighting on horseback. They believed that they might be able to conquer the world. They easily conquered Persia far to the west. It was a big empire with high technology, a big population and a big army. Then they decided to try to conquer all the countries around them. They attacked the Tang Dynasty, the Dali Kingdom in Yunnan, and much of Asia, and they formed the biggest empire in the history of the earth until then. They conquered Russia, a part of eastern Europe and a part of the Middle East. In China, the Mongols established the very rich Yuan Dynasty. In their camps, the Mongols were entertained by shadow puppet plays in which a lamp cast the shadows of little figurines and puppets on a screen or sheet. In the Yuan Dynasty, puppet drama continued to entertain the rich dynastic courts in vernacular language. Dramatic operatic theaters with human actors speaking in vernacular language was a favorite form of entertainment as well, and some of China’s best dramatic scripts were written then. Also two of the four novels that are generally considered China’s best literary classics were written in vernacular language then. So though the Yuan Empire wasn’t ruled by Chinese, it was an era of some historically renowned dramatic playwrights and novelists who wrote in vernacular language. It is thought that the operatic style of the shadow puppet dramas that entertained the courts influenced the development of the operatic theater style of the Yuan Dynasty. The Yuan rulers were fabulously wealthy according to historical accounts. They had a vast empire and control of trade in Eurasia. For the royal courts or the rich people, refined music, sound effects and talented singers were employed for shadow plays. The Yuan â€Å"Zaju† style of opera was similar to their shadow pl ays. Perhaps the playwrights adopted the plots and the features. There were exciting plots, elaborate costumes, refined music and singing, action, and dance that the Mongols enjoyed. The music of the Zaju operas was called Yuan Qu (Yuan Music). The language used wasn’t the Classical Language but the vernacular language, so that the theater might be enjoyed by everyone. After the Yuan Dynasty, the operatic style developed into the Painted Faces style of Chinese opera that was popular until modern times. Guan Hanqing is regarded as one of the best playwrights of the times. He wrote Midsummer Snow that was one of the most popular drama pieces. It is a tragedy about an unjustly accused woman who received justice after her death. The Romance of the Western Chamber was written by Wang Shifu. It is considered one of the best romantic dramas ever written in China. Novels were another outstanding achievement of the Yuan era. The novelists influenced the future development of the genre. Two novels are still widely read now and are generally considered two of the four greatest novels in Chinese literature. These are Water Margin and The Romance of the Three Kingdoms. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms was written in vernacular language by Luo Guan Zhong. It is historical fiction about the end of the Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms Period. The Three Kingdoms Period was between the Han and Tang eras. Special emphasis is laid on the two famous historical rulers Liu Bei and Cao Cao who were antagonists. It is a long novel with 800,000 words. Water Margin is about the lives and ideals of a group of characters who fought against the corrupt Northern Song Dynasty that the Mongols conquered. It is said it was written in vernacular language by Shi Nai An, but scholars debate about the authorship. Many scholars think that the first 70 chapters were written by Shi Nai An and that the last 30 chapters were written by Luo Guan Zhong who was also the author of The Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) Novels The Chinese rebelled against the Mongols, and the Ming Dynasty era began about 1368. The Mongols and the Ming government still sometimes fought. Because of this and the presence of Muslim countries in between, trade with the west was reduced to the pre-Yuan level. The Ming initially were interested in exploration, and Muslims whose ancestors arrived during the Yuan Dynasty and who were familiar with seagoing trade were employed to make long voyages to the Indian Ocean, the Middle East and perhaps Africa. Then they became isolationist. It is interesting that a book that is one of the four great classics called Journey to the West about a monk going to India was written during this time of isolation. Maybe the thought of travel to the lands in the west was appealing then. Novels were the era’s main contribution. The Journey to the West is based on the historical journey of a Buddhist to India during the Tang era to learn Buddhist teachings and bring back scriptures and information. In 1629, Xuanzang (602 664) left Changan in 629 and arrived back in Changan in 646. Mythical tales about this journey including the character of an intelligent monkey began to be circulated long before the book was written. The author drew on known tales. Journey to the West is thought to have been published anonymously by Wu Chengen in the 16th century though scholars have doubt about the authorship. The trend in that era was for people to write in Classical Chinese and imitate the literature of the Tang Dynasty and Han Dynasty. However, this book was written in the vernacular. Perhaps because there was a lack of accurate geographical knowledge available to the author, much of the geographical landscape of the story is inaccurate. However, the â€Å"Flaming Mountains† that are near Turpan in Xinjiang are mentioned. Perhaps the author meant to poke fun at Chinese religion because a monkey is said to have defeated a whole army led by Taoist gods, and only the Buddha’s intervention stopped the monkey. The book describes India as a land of gross sin and immorality, and the monk was commissioned by Buddha to help India. The characters in the book are well known to Chinese children, and they often appear in martial arts movies and cartoons. Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) Novels and Pre-modern Literature The Manchus invaded the Ming Empire from the north and established the last dynasty called the Qing Dynasty. The Manchus were not Chinese, but they retained the Neo-Confucian governing system of the Song and Ming eras. The Qing Dynasty came under increasing attack from both internal rebellions and foreign countries. In the 19th century, foreign literature and the West became better known. In the middle of this era, the last of China’s four great classic novels was written called Dream of the Red Chamber (ç ´â€¦Ã¦ ¨â€œÃ¥ ¤ ¢); and near the end of the era, modernistic literature developed. The Dream of the Red Chamber also has an uncertain authorship. Like the other three great classic novels, it was written in a vernacular language – the Mandarin language that was the language of the Qing capital. It is probably mostly composed by Cao Xueqin (about 1715-1763) in the middle 1700s, and the first printing of the book was in the late 1700s. It is thought that Cao did not live to see the first printing. It is thought that another person or other people contributed the ending of the story since the original ending of the story was lost. The book has a lot of textual problems, and there are different versions. In a preface to a printed version in 1792, two editors claimed to have put together an ending based on the authors working manuscripts that they had bought from a street vendor. At the end of the Qing Dynasty era, the dynastic rulers came under increasing pressure both from foreign attacks and internal rebellions. Educated Chinese had easier access to foreign literature, and they were more influenced by Western culture. Students started to travel abroad to study, and schools built by missionaries educated tens of thousands of students. There was a general sense of crisis, and intellectuals started translating foreign works on science, politics, and literature. These were popular, and the culture started to change. Some writers produced fiction more like Western fiction. Chinese Literatures Chinese Classical Prose Prose writing in ancient and pre-modern China differed from poetry in that it was less rigidly structured and wasnt like verses in a song or like one of the common styles of poetry. But compared to English prose, literary prose before the year 1900 was often much more formalized. Except for popular novels and theatrical plays, most of the literary prose works were written in the literary Classical Language. This Classical Language utilized the grammar and ancient characters of the Warring States Period (475-221 BC) and of the Han Dynasty era (206 BC – 220 AD). Writers sought to imitate the examples of prose in ancient philosophical and religious books such as Mencius (Ã¥ ­Å¸Ã¥ ­ ) and Zhuang Zi (莊å ­ ). These old texts that were thought to date from about 600 BC to 200 BC were thought to contain examples of careful and well-reasoned discourses and be examples of good organization and style. During the Han Dynasty era (206 BC – 220 AD), a more formalized style of prose writing appeared that was called Piantiwen (é § ¢Ã© «â€Ã¦â€"‡) or parallel prose style. But in the Tang and Song eras, people started to write in the less formal and more ancient style called Guwen (Ã¥  ¤Ã¦â€"‡) of the Warring States era. So classical prose can be divided into three types called Piantiwen style, Guwen style, and the vernacular style used in operatic dramas and in the Four Classic Novels of Chinese literature. For about 2,000 years after the Qin Dynasty era (221-206 BC), Chinese writers had a constraint that European writers generally didnt face after the Renaissance. Chinese writers generally needed to write in a common literary language that wasnt their native language or a vernacular language anywhere. The ancient languages of the Warring States Period were extinct. But writers had to maintain the grammar and the use of the vocabulary. In some ways, this is similar to how educated Europeans wrote in Latin until the Renaissance era. During the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC), the emperor ordered that all texts other than those of a philosophy called Legalism and some sciences that he favored be destroyed. There was a Book Burning and the Burial of Scholars. They effectively destroyed several religions and philosophical schools and much ancient literature. During the Han era, people tried to reconstruct and preserve what was lost. What emerged as important were works attributed to Confucius, Mencius, Zhuang Zi, Lao Zi, and a few other philosophers. Mencius whose book was considered one of the major texts of Confucianism was said to have elegant diction, and Zhuang Zi whose text was one of the two pillars of the school of Daoism that emerged in the Han era showed how to use anecdotes and all egories effectively. Chinese writers tried to copy their styles. The example of the style from the pre-Qin era was said to be simple and direct. Ouyang XiuIn the Han era, a variant style was developed that was called Piantiwen (é § ¢Ã© «â€Ã¦â€"‡). This style wasnt as clear or precise, but it was florid, ornate and rigid. The Piantiwen style was popular for several hundred years afterwards. During the late Tang era (618-907), two prominent officials tried to reintroduce the earlier style called Guwen. Han Yu (768–824) and Liu Zongyuan tried to teach others to use Guwen. They are considered two of the great prose masters of the Tang and Song eras. But the Tang Dynasty fell and was replaced by the Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD). During the Song Dynasty, another literati named Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) helped to revive writing in the Guwen style. This neoclassical style dominated prose writing for the next 800 years. It was the writing system of rulers in the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1645-1912) eras. In order to gain entrance into the bur eaucracy during the Ming and Qing eras, candidates had to pass the imperial qualifying examination. The exam material was the 9 Classics of Neo-Confucianism as was codified in the Song era. The Four Books and Five Classics (å››æ› ¸Ã¤ ºâ€Ã§ ¶â€œ) were basically memorized by those who did the best on the exams. These works contained the style of writing the literati wished to imitate. After the fourteenth century, vernacular fiction became popular. This may be because the invention of printing allowed the works to be more widely published. In the Yuan (1279-1368), Ming and Qing eras, four novels were published that are considered the best in Chinese history. The four novels are often called the Four Classics in China. All four were written in a spoken language of their times unlike most ancient literature that was written in the literary Classical Language. These four novels all have disputed authorship. They are: The Romance of the Three Kingdoms that is said to have been written by Luo Guan Zhong during the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368); Water Margin that is said to be written by Shi Nai An during the Yuan era; Journey to the West that is thought to have been published anonymously by Wu Chengen during the Ming Dynasty era (1368-1644); and The Dream of the Red Chamber was said to be written by Cao Xueqin (1715-1763) during the Qing Dynasty era (1644-1911). The writers wrote in different languages, but vernacular prose can be called the third type of classical prose writing. Chinese Poetry Poetry has been a favorite literary genre for thousands of years. Poetry isnt taken very seriously in the West, especially in the last two hundred years, but Chinese ancient poetry is still read and ancient Chinese poets are honored. The greatest poets are thought to have lived a thousand years ago or more during the Tang (618-907), Song (960-1279) and Han (206 BC – 220 AD) dynastic eras. Du Fu, Li Bai and Su Shi are considered among the best ancient poets, and there are five major kinds of major ancient poetic styles called Shi, Ci, Ge, Qu and Fu. The very ancient poetry that was written a thousand or more years ago was simpler and about common things like love, romance and nature that people appreciate. Though much poetry was written in the eras following the Song Dynasty (960-1279), it is thought that the poets became increasingly erudite, academic and esoteric so that modern Chinese cant appreciate the style and meaning. Since the Chinese have a character-based writing system instead of an alphabetic system, though the languages have changed, modern Chinese can still read a lot of the ancient poetry. Since the pronunciation of words has changed a lot, often the rhymes or tonal rhythms are lost for poems that rhymed or had tonal patterns. But the meanings of the characters havent changed much, though modern readers may interpret the words to mean something other than the ancient author intended. Nuances and connotations may be lost. Since old poems remain and modern Chinese can understand them to some extent, they are still appreciated. Five Kinds of Poems 1. Shi è © © Shi poems are composed of couplets. They are poems of two more coupled lines. The two lines of a couplet usually rhyme and match rhythmically and complement each other tonally. Modern Mandarin only has five tones, but ancient languages usually had more, so the tonal rhythms are generally lost. 2. Ci è ©Å¾ Ci poetry can be described as poems that have patterns of syllables and tonal patterns. In making a Ci poetry, a poet chooses words that fit a specific pattern. These patterns may have once been part of a song. But the music has been lost. There are various patterns that provided affective settings for various effects or moods. 3. Ge æ ­Å' The word ge means song. Ge poems are the words to a song that can be sung. There were folk songs as well as songs composed by the literate and educated composers. 4. Qu æ› ² When the Mongols conquered China and established the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368), they brought with them their own style of music and forms of entertainment. They especially liked to watch shadow puppet theaters that were puppet plays of little manipulated figurines and puppets illuminated by a lamp so that the shadows fell against a screen. It is thought that the form of operatic drama of the Yuan Dynasty imitated their shadow play theaters. The style of music and song in the operas was called Yuan Qu or Mongol Music. The songs from the operas and popular songs were a poetic style called Qu that was also popular in later eras. The poetic style is freer of form. 5. Fuè ³ ¦ A fifth major style of poetry is called Fu. These are descriptive poems that contain both prose and couplets. These were popular about 1,500 years to 2,000 years ago. Often poets included rare or unusual written characters from preceding eras in their poems.

Limitation of Ratio Analysis

Limitation of Ratio Analysis Limitation of Ratio Analysis Learning Objective Explain to the participants on the limitation of ratio analysis. Important Terms Creative accounting. Accounting Policies. As we have alredy discussed, it is important to compare in order to be able to analyse and to be able to comment and subsequently recommend in order that a business is as efficient as possible. Limitations of Ratios Accounting Information Different Accounting PoliciesThe choices of accounting policies may distort inter company comparisons. Example IAS 16 allows valuation of assets to be based on either revalued amount or at depreciated historical cost. The business may opt not to revalue its asset because by doing so the depreciation charge is going to be high and will result in lower profit. Creative accounting The businesses apply creative accounting in trying to show the better financial performance or position which can be misleading to the users of financial accounting. Like the IAS 16 mentioned above, requires that if an asset is revalued and there is a revaluation deficit, it has to be charged as an expense in income statement, but if it results in revaluation surplus the surplus should be credited to revaluation reserve. So in order to improve on its profitability level the company may select in its revaluation programme to revalue only those assets which will result in revaluation surplus leaving those with revaluation deficits still at depreciated historical cost. Information problems Ratios are not definitive measuresRatios need to be interpreted carefully. They can provide clues to the companys performance or financial situation. But on their own, they cannot show whether performance is good or bad.Ratios require some quantitative information for an informed analysis to be made. Outdated information in financial statementThe figures in a set of accounts are likely to be at least several months out of date, and so might not give a proper indication of the companys current financial position. Historical costs not suitable for decision making IASB Conceptual framework recommends businesses to use historical cost of accounting. Where historical cost convention is used, asset valuations in the balance sheet could be misleading. Ratios based on this information will not be very useful for decision making. Financial statements certain summarised informationRatios are based on financial statements which are summaries of the accounting records. Through the summarisation some important information may be left out which could have been of relevance to the users of accounts. The ratios are based on the summarised year end information which may not be a true reflection of the overall years results. Interpretation of the ratioIt is difficult to generalise about whether a particular ratio is good or bad. For example a high current ratio may indicate a strong liquidity position, which is good or excessive cash which is bad. Similarly Non current assets turnover ratio may denote either a firm that uses its assets efficiently or one that is under capitalised and cannot afford to buy enough assets. Comparison of performance over time Price changesInflation renders comparisons of results over time misleading as financial figures will not be within the same levels of purchasing power. Changes in results over time may show as if the enterprise has improved its performance and position when in fact after adjusting for inflationary changes it will show the different picture. Technology changesWhen comparing performance over time, there is need to consider the changes in technology. The movement in performance should be in line with the changes in technology. For ratios to be more meaningful the enterprise should compare its results with another of the same level of technology as this will be a good basis measurement of efficiency. Changes in Accounting policyChanges in accounting policy may affect the comparison of results between different accounting years as misleading. The problem with this situation is that the directors may be able to manipulate the results through the changes in accounting policy. This would be done to avoid the effects of an old accounting policy or gain the effects of a new one. It is likely to be done in a sensitive period, perhaps when the businesss profits are low. Changes in Accounting standardAccounting standards offers standard ways of recognising, measuring and presenting financial transactions. Any change in standards will affect the reporting of an enterprise and its comparison of results over a number of years. Impact of seasons on tradingAs stated above, the financial statements are based on year end results which may not be true reflection of results year round. Businesses which are affected by seasons can choose the best time to produce financial statements so as to show better results. For example, a tobacco growing company will be able to show good results if accounts are produced in the selling season. This time the business will have good inventory levels, receivables and bank balances will be at its highest. While as in planting seasons the company will have a lot of liabilities through the purchase of farm inputs, low cash balances and even nil receivables. Inter-firm comparison Different financial and business risk profileNo two companies are the same, even when they are competitors in the same industry or market. Using ratios to compare one company with another could provide misleading information. Businesses may be within the same industry but having different financial and business risk. One company may be able to obtain bank loans at reduced rates and may show high gearing levels while as another may not be successful in obtaining cheap rates and it may show that it is operating at low gearing level. To un informed analyst he may feel like company two is better when in fact its low gearing level is because it can not be able to secure further funding. Different capital structures and sizeCompanies may have different capital structures and to make comparison of performance when one is all equity financed and another is a geared company it may not be a good analysis. Impact of Government influenceSelective application of government incentives to various companies may also distort intercompany comparison. One company may be given a tax holiday while the other within the same line of business not, comparing the performance of these two enterprises may be misleading. Window dressingThese are techniques applied by an entity in order to show a strong financial position. For example, MZ Trucking can borrow on a two year basis, K10 Million on 28th December 2003, holding the proceeds as cash, then pay off the loan ahead of time on 3rd January 2004. This can improve the current and quick ratios and make the 2003 balance sheet look good. However the improvement was strictly window dressing as a week later the balance sheet is at its old position. Ratio analysis is useful, but analysts should be aware of these problems and make adjustments as necessary. Ratios analysis conducted in a mechanical, unthinking manner is dangerous, but if used intelligently and with good judgement, it can provide useful insights into the firms operations.

Terrorism - Towards An Understanding :: essays research papers fc

I am in complete disagreement with Corrado and Cohen's theory of political terrorism. I believe that political terrorism is committed by dominant, aggressive males in positions of power, acting with other dominant, aggressive males for more power, money, or status, and without regard to the spiritual nature of human kind. I believe that dividing political terrorism into state or anti state terrorism, does not get to the root cause of terrorism. To uncover the true cause of terrorism, I believe involves identifying motive and personalities of those "terrorizing". In most cases it is dominant, aggressive males who hold positions of power in either the political, economic, or military arenas, and who manipulate events to suite themselves, e.g., Hitler, Stalin, Mussolini, and in more recent times, Slobodon Milosovic. Those that fight against dominance and aggression, I believe should be called revolutionaries. For example, the Irish Republican Army. The North of Ireland harboured a protestant streak of dominant, aggressive males, who in attempt to hang on to power, unleashed the horrific events of Bloody Sunday, and many other uncalled for acts of aggression. These acts where sanctioned by politicians, in both the North of Ireland and England, who acted in conjunction with both the Royal Ulster Constabulary, and the British Army. On Bloody Sunday, the British soldiers deliberately aimed and killed young men, they believed most likely to be members of the Irish Republican Army, at the peaceful, albeit illegal, demonstration. "...all the deceased where men, and nine of them were under the age of 25." It was an effort to stop what has almost come to pass. A fair assembly of politicians, who represent all layers and fabrics of the society. The event is still under review. The actions of the Irish Republican Army has eventually destroyed the positions of power that the dominant, aggressive males abused. But I do not be lieve that we should label those who fought for a better life as terrorists. People who put their lives on the line for true justice, I believe should be referred to as a Revolutionaries. We are exposed to new conflicts now, almost on a daily basis, and no two situations are ever identical. This makes the breakdown of a typology extremely difficult. The typology which defines "political terrorism", according to Corrado and Cohen, has eleven different categories, in order to encompass all of the different situations. These typologies may be useful in a security setting, but in order to get to the bottom of the problem, I believe that rather than complicating the issue with many meanings, it should instead be simplified and attributed to one of two choices.

The Jump :: First Person Narrative Examples

Anxiety took over my body as I prepared to jump. The 80 foot waterfall looming atop Turner Falls seemed to be challenging me, beckoning me to come and attempt to plunge from the rock into the waterfall to try to endure the pressure as the water knocked me straight down into the deep waters and jagged rocks which awaited below. I waited with an eager excitement thinking that if I could take this plunge, I would really be able to swim with those I saw as the "big fish." Waiting on that rock I had no idea that the events following my wait would change that jump from being something I so much desired into something I would be grateful to never personally experience. Ahead of me in line were two brothers, one 14 years old and the other 17. They were both tall and thin with caramel colored skin. They had wiry black hair and dark brown eyes and continually chattered back and forth to each other and their many other brothers and sisters in Spanish. With an inability to swim, the brothers jumped in with nothing to aid them but faith that the waters would push them out into shallow safety. The two went under and a fanatic frenzy broke out when random bystanders watching on the sides realized that the boys were not coming up. The lifeguards began frantically blowing their whistles and screaming at everyone, "Get out of the water! Everybody! Out! Now!" With no knowledge of the severity of what was going on, I was almost in a state of confusion as I looked to the side and saw my mother screaming at me to get off the rock. Needless to say, I went to my mother and within seconds the water was empty, except for the two boys who lay below the surface. One brother was retrieved from the water in only a few moments, not smooth and with ease, as I expected from what I'd seen on television, but with severe difficulty, as if he was 1000 pounds of dead weight. The other was nowhere to be found. In a desperate search, the breathless and scared lifeguards came over to the crowd, which had formed aside the water. "Do we have any divers in the crowd? Please? Anybody with any experience at all please we need your help." After over 15 minutes of searching and scrambling, finally the second brother was pulled from the water from a spot directly under the waterfall, 19 feet beneath the surface.

The Trip: Journey To The Center Of Terence Mckennas Inner Self. :: essays research papers

The Trip: Journey to The Center of Terence McKenna's Inner Self. Terence McKenna has become one of the most (in)famous figures in the exploration of psychedelia and its impact on society and technology. Here McKenna espouses his theories on psychedelic mushrooms, virtual reality, shamanism and evolution. This is definitely one of the strangest and most interesting articles I have ever read. At first it seems almost totally incomprehensible and inconceivable, but after reading it over a couple of times with a good dictionary and thesaurus it begins to make sense. In this article McKenna explains one of his trips on magic mushrooms. He describes this trip as â€Å"a virtual reality tour of God's cerebral cortex, hosted by the Lucky Charms leprechaun†. He then goes on to tell how this trip affected his life and how it was such a complete shock that it caused the literal turning inside-out of his intellectual universe. He was knocked off his feet and set himself the goal of understanding this. His quest led him all over the world, exploring traditions of magic-religious drug usage. In the years since his fateful encounter with the self-transforming machine elves of hyperspace, McKenna has fashioned his mental Merzbau on the New Age lecture circuit, where he has earned the benediction of the psychedelic High Priest himself, who dubbed him â€Å"the Timothy Leary of the 90's†. McKenna has written several books as well as having rave bands set his ruminations to billowing techno-trance music. The main focus of this article is on McKenna's theory, which is concocted from psychedelic Darwinism, fringe linguistics, and New Age eschatology. This theory is based on the notion that â€Å"Hallucinogenic plants may have been the catalysts

Confucius and Plato

Confucius and Plato Editor Ken Wolf, at the beginning of the essay Confucius and Plato: A Few Really Good People, poses the question: â€Å"What is the best way to create a strong society? † (Wolf 25) It was surprising to a novice student of philosophy how similar the ideas of the ancient Chinese sage Confucius and famous Greek philosopher Plato were. Although, Confucius and Plato both made major contributions to the development of society, they showed both similarities and differences in these three subjects: ruling class, education, and faith in humanity.Confucius and Plato both believed virtue and intelligence were key components to creating a strong society. Confucius thought anyone who has been educated had the capability to develop into a ruler. Whereas Plato assumed anyone could be educated, but only a few, those in the ruling class had the ability to reason and thus were qualified to rule. In addition, Plato gave credence to the idea of being born into the ruling class , that the quality to reason was an inherited quality. Confucius and Plato were both strong believers that order was another main factor in a strong society.Although they both had laws to maintain the order, Plato had less faith in people in general to behave in a civilized manner. Both Confucius and Plato were in favor of education and were teachers themselves. Confucius’s followers were the ones who wrote the Analects, which talked about how civilization depends on â€Å"humanity† and â€Å"propriety†. Plato actually wrote The Republic which talked about his ideal â€Å"philosopher-king†. Plato established the Academy, which taught principles of ethics and government, for 900 years. Confucius attempted to teach the ruler to become a better person, but failed.The concepts put forth by Confucius and Plato begin to differ more when faith in humanity comes into play. Confucius and Plato both wanted to think there was good in everyone, but Confucius believed more in a â€Å"†¦society in which human relationships—especially those within the family—were more important than laws. † (Wolf 27) Plato concluded that the people needed to be controlled for there to be order. That control was maintained through the law. They both sought out peace and harmony, although Confucius focused more on the behavior of individuals and Plato was interested in universal truth even though it probably would not be accepted,.Plato felt that if a person tried to bring enlightenment to the masses â€Å"†¦they would probably try to kill to him for telling such tall tales, disrupting their lives and challenging their accustomed beliefs. † (Wolf 31) Even today, most people would agree with Confucius and Plato about the importance of educating people in the development of a strong society. The idea of relationships as the basis of society may be summed up in: â€Å"Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. This Golden Rule seems to be as important to Western society as it was to Chinese society. However, the idea of a better quality of citizen that is better suited to lead society smacks of elitism and would definitely not be accepted in modern democracies. However, that does not mean that the elite educated class from Harvard and Yale has not been overrepresented in American leadership. So perhaps we have a ruling elite, but not as overt as Plato would like. A final thought from the essay would be: a harmonious and orderly existence is important to all societies.